第二章 早期恐怖主义回溯
Even though the word Terrorism originated during the French Revolution and the Jacobin Reign of Terror (1792-1794), individual acts of terror-violence can be traced back at least to the ancient Greek and Roman republics. By definition, the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. was an act of terrorism in so far as a modern political assassination is defined as terrorism.
Tyrannicide, the assassination of a political leader (tyrant).
Aristotle (384-322 B.C, Greek philosopher)
Aristotle pointed out the necessity of killing the unjust ruler. For him, a tyrannical ruler was considered a pathological departure from the desirable forms of governing authority.
Cicero (106-43 B.C, Roman statesman)
Cicero stated that “it is a virtue to kill” tyrants ,and that they “should be erased from human society”
John of Salisbury (1110-1180, English bishop and author)
He wrote that a tyrant “oppressed the people by rulership based upon force.” By ruling in this manner, “it is plain that it is the grace of God which is being assailed.” Therefore, he concluded, “it is just for public tyrants to be killed and the people thus set free for the service of God.”
“He who usurps the sword is worth to die by the sword.”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778, French writer)
Social Contract Theory (the existence of a social contract between a people and their government )
Anarchism（无政府主义）
Anarchism is the doctrine that opposes established political authority in all its forms. Anarchists view life as a moral drama in which the individual is arrayed against the state and all the oppressive instruments of coercion that they associate with government—bureaucracies, courts, police, the military, and institutions of private property and religion. They seek liberation from these and all forms of external constraint on human freedom. The anarchist is antipolitical, antitechnological and antieconomic. Thus anarchists are essentially foes of capitalist as it keeps government merely to protect their bourgeois interests and mmmanage their affairs.
( Contending Theories of International Relations )
代表人物：
巴枯宁（Bakunin）（1814－1876），其无政府主义思想反对一切权威和国家，强调追求个人的绝对自由。他理想中的社会是：没有政府，只有管理；没有法律，只有契约；没有刑罚，只有教育。
巴枯宁主张用恐怖手段摧毁一切国家机器，建立无政府的社会。他的思想对早期俄国的民粹运动有很大影响。
Case Study: Russian Revolutionary Terrorism
The era of modern terrorism is usually said to have begun in the nineteenth century with the rise of Russia’s People’s Will.
Perhaps the most prominent proponents of individual and collective violence as a means of destroying governments and social institutions were the Russian anarchists, revolutionaries within Russia who sought an end to the Czarist state of latter nineteen century.
In the writings of two of the most prominent spokesmen for revolutionary anarchism, Bakunin and Nechaev, one finds philosophies often echoed by modern terrorists. Bakunin, for example, advocated in his National Catechism (1866) the use of “selective, discriminate terror.”
克里米亚战争（1853－1856）
亚历山大二世的对农奴制的改革（1861）
俄国知识分子的革命活动
车尔尼雪夫斯基的《怎么办？》（1862）
俄革命者在用宣传手段和组织手段发动群众失败后，采取了恐怖行动。到1860年代中期，以青年学生为代表的革命者开始了与沙皇之间的较量。1866年，Karakozov刺杀亚历山大二世未果。
涅恰耶夫（Nechaev）与人民惩治会（the People’s Revenge）
陀思妥耶夫斯基的《群魔》
民粹主义（Populism）(1868-1881)和民粹派
以拉甫罗夫为代表的俄平民知识分子，主张走向民间，进行革命启蒙工作，为未来的人民起义打下基础。民粹派在“到民间去”和从事恐怖活动之间摇摆不定，最终一些人选择了恐怖主义。
民意党（The People’s Will）（1879－1894）
With the creation of the People’s Will in 1879, political assassination of a wide range of targets began to become a normal form of political protest, becoming part of an intense cycle of terror and counterterror. This revolutionary group believed that terrorism should be used to compromise the best of governmental power, to give constant proof that it is possible to fight the government, and to strengthen thereby the revolutionary spirit of the people and their faith in the success of the cause.
社会革命党 (Social Revolutionary Party) (1901—1908)
the Russian revolutionaries took special pains to avoid endangering innocent bystanders. For instance, the poet Ivan Kalialev, who assassinated the Grand Duke Sergius on the night of February 2, 1905, had passed up an opportunity earlier that evening to throw the bomb because the Grand Duchess and some of her nieces and nephews were also in the Grand Duke’s carriage.
It is quite easy to note the blending of revolutionary and terror-violence during this time. The assassination of Czar AlexanderII in 1881 and First Minister Peter Stolypin in 1911 were incidents that produced periods of counterterrorism ( in the form of state repression ). This repression probably accelerated the revolutionary movement responsible for those assassinations. Thus, the the terrorist acts of assassination, inspired by brutal repression in the czarist state, provoked further state terrorism, which in turn inspired revolutionary movement to further acts of violence.
George Kennan, commenting on the rising tide of terrorism in Russia during the last half of the nineteenth century, explained the relationship of state and revolutionary terrorism in this way: “ Wrong a man…deny him all redress, exile him if he complains, gag him if he cries out, strike him in the face if he struggles, and at the last he will stab and throw bombs.”
Still, while some of the seeds of more widespread and random terror-violence were sown in the revolutionary and anarchistic movements of the late nineteenth century, by the beginning of the twentieth century, terror-violence was still principally directed toward political assassination. Between 1881and 1912, at least ten national leaders had lost their lives to assassins.
思考题
1、 恐怖主义有那些理论渊源？
2、 你如何评价“民意党”的恐怖活动？
参考书目
Cindy C. Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century,
Chapter 2
王逸舟主编：《恐怖主义溯源》，第一章
胡联合：《当代恐怖主义与对策》 |
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