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Maginot Line马其诺防线
Maginot Line, defensive fortification built on France’s eastern frontier with Germany during the 1930s. It was named after French minister of war André Maginot. In 1914, at the start of World War I, Germany had invaded France from the northeast. Throughout the 1920s Maginot pressed for a defensive barrier to be built against Germany, and his concept was finally realized in the 1930s. The purpose of the Maginot Line was to deter a future German invasion, but its failure to do so during World War II (1939-1945) made it a symbol of a costly strategic blunder and of misguided military optimism.
Maastricht Treaty or Treaty on European Union马斯特里赫特条约
Maastricht Treaty or Treaty on European Union, treaty that created the European Union (EU). The treaty was approved at Maastricht in The Netherlands by the heads of government of the 12 members of the European Community (EC) in December 1991 and was signed on February 7, 1992. The 12 nations were Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. The treaty reflected the intention of the EC nations to broaden the scale of monetary and economic union and begin serious consideration of joint policies in regard to defense, citizenship, and the protection of the environment. Under the Maastricht Treaty, European citizenship was granted to citizens of each member state. Customs and immigration agreements were enhanced to allow European citizens greater freedom to live, work, or study in any of the member states, and border controls were relaxed. The treaty created joint foreign and monetary policies. It called for the eventual creation of a single currency, the European Currency Unit (ECU), and a central bank, which would coordinate the monetary policies of the central banks of the respective nations.
George Marshall马歇尔
George Marshall (1880-1959), American military commander, army chief of staff during World War II; as secretary of state (1947-49) he played an important role in aiding the postwar economic recovery of Western Europe.
Marshall Plan马歇尔计划
Introduced by Secretary of State George C. Marshall and passed by the United States Congress as the European Recovery Act, the Marshall Plan provides money for European recovery after World War II while promoting free trade. Over twenty-three billion dollars go to Western Europe under the plan, but the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc reject participation.
Joseph McCarthy麦卡锡主义
Joseph McCarthy (politician) (1908-1957), American politician, who led a campaign against Communist subversion in the early 1950s. McCarthy’s charges were often not well substantiated, and the United States Senate voted to censure him for the tactics he used.
Open Door Policy门户开放政策
Open Door Policy, term that refers to the principle of equal trading rights in China at the end of the 19th century. It is also used to describe policies of equal trading rights in other countries. In the late 1800s, the major European powers had obtained control of important areas of China, and it appeared that the country would soon be divided into spheres of influence into which other trading nations would have no access. The United States was unwilling to compete for territory, but desired access to China for trading purposes. Accordingly, in 1899 and 1900 U.S. Secretary of State John Milton Hay negotiated an agreement with Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Japan that guaranteed “equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire” and preservation of “Chinese territorial and administrative” integrity.
The open door agreement remained the basis of U.S. policy toward China until the establishment of the Communist regime there in 1949; Japan's violations of it caused friction between that country and the United States before World War II.
Monroe Doctrine门罗主义
Monroe Doctrine, statement of United States policy on the activities and rights of European powers in the western hemisphere. It was made by President James Monroe in his seventh annual address to the Congress of the United States on December 2, 1823; it eventually became one of the foundations of U.S. policy in Latin America. Because it was not supported by congressional legislation or affirmed in international law, Monroe's statement initially remained only a declaration of policy; its increasing use and popularity elevated it to a principle, specifically termed the Monroe Doctrine after the mid-1840s
Bernard Montgomery蒙哥马利
Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976), British military leader who played a prominent role in the Allied victories in Africa and Europe during World War II (1939-1945). Bernard Law Montgomery was born in London and educated at the Royal Military College. He entered the British army in 1908 and served in World War I (1914-1918) as a captain. In 1942, during World War II, he was appointed commander of the British Eighth Army in Africa; two months later he began an offensive at Al ‘Alamayn (El ‘Alamein), Egypt, which resulted in the expulsion of the German-Italian forces under the German General Erwin Rommel, first from Egypt and then from Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in Libya. In 1943 he gained another victory over Rommel at the Battle of the Mareth Line in southern Tunisia. As commander in chief of the British armies on the western front, he served under the supreme commander of Allied forces, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, from December 1943 to August 1944, when he was promoted to field marshal in command of British and Canadian troops. In 1946 Montgomery was created Viscount Montgomery of Alamein and made chief of the imperial general staff. He was deputy supreme commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces from 1951 to 1958. His writings include his memoirs, published in 1958, and The Path to Leadership (1961).
Menshevik孟什维克
the cult of the individual and its consequence关于个人崇拜及其后果
Vyacheslav Molotov莫洛托夫
Vyacheslav Molotov (1890-1986), Bolshevik politician, who rose to become foreign minister of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and one of the most influential lieutenants to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Molotov helped Stalin achieve and maintain absolute power.
Battle of Moscow莫斯科战役
Battle of Moscow, protracted winter campaign fought in 1941 and 1942 by the German Wehrmacht against the Red Army of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in World War II (1939-1945). It was a major defeat for the Nazi regime of German dictator Adolf Hitler and proved to be the turning point of the struggle on the central Russian front.
Benito Mussolini 墨索里尼
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), founder of Fascism and prime minister and dictator of Italy (1922-1943). Known as Il Duce (Italian for “the leader”), Mussolini centralized political power in Italy and bound the nation to him with his charisma. His vast personal power, strong-arm methods, and extreme nationalism made him a model for leaders of like-minded authoritarian movements in the 1920s and 1930s. German dictator Adolf Hitler saw Mussolini as a precursor, and many similarities existed between the Fascist and German Nazi movements. Allied with Hitler from 1938 to 1943, Mussolini helped plunge Europe into World War II (1939-1945).
munich scheme慕尼黑阴谋
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