- 1．分析各时期建筑风格
- Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric style which is also called the masculine style; the Ionic style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian style.
- Romanesque was a kind of style which was very popular during the 11th and 12th centuries. The style of architecture under Romanesque art is characterized by massiveness, solidity and monumentality with all overall blocky appearance.
- The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe. It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th century.
- The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque.
- Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches, and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures more lifelike than any since ancient Rome.
- Baroque art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to the Netherlands and Flander in the North. It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on colour and light. The representatives were Michelangelo Caravaggio, Bernini, Borromini, Velazquez, Rubens, Rembrandt, etc. It referred to architecture of the period with its proliferation of ornament. Later the term “baroque” was applied to music and paintings. In music, the new art represented a transformation of its elements into a swelling, emotional style.
- Rococo Art
- Rococo has been interpreted as being made up of two French words, rocaille, meaning rock and coquille, meaning shell. Rococo style in art is usually associated with architecture and interior decoration. It is characterized by elaborate ornamentation imitating shellwork and foliage and it has a curving and elastic pattern. It was not a style in fine arts, but a style in such minor as furniture, tapestries, clocks and ceiling chandeliers.
- Rococo Art succeeded Baroque Art in Europe. It was most popular in France, and is generally associated with the reign of King Louis XV. It is a light, elaborate and decorative style of art. Quintessentially Rococo artists include Jean-Honore Francois Boucher. Jean-Antoine Watteau and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. Rococo was eventually replaced by Neoclassicism which was the signature visual style of Napoleon in France and of the American revolution.
- 2．罗马皇帝对基督教的态度
- Persecutions
- After Jesus died, his disciples tried to spread his gospel, first led by St. Peter and St. Paul. Their work among slaves weakened the social and political bond that held the Roman empire together. What is more, the Christians refused to honor the empire as a god, claiming that only the true God should be worshipped. So at the beginning Christianity was regarded as a rebellious and disintegrating movement and was subjected to frequent persecution. Both St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Nero. Then Domitian, Trajan, Valerian and Diocletian continued to persecute. By 305 Diocletian grew up his effort to destroy the young religion. Soon a war between rivals fro the throne followed and was won by Constantine.
- Legislation by government ---- 合法化
- * Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle and so issued the Edict of Milan in 313. 颁发了米兰特赦令 It granted religious freedom to all, and made Christianity legal.
- The official religion ----官方的统治工具
- * In 392 A.D., Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religions.
- * Now Christianity had changed from an object of oppression to a weapon in the hands of the ruling class to crush their opponents.
- 3． 三种社会契约论
- The Theory of the Social Contract 社会契约论
- * What is the social contract, according to Hobbes?
- 1. It is necessary that there should be a common power 权力制衡组织 or government backed by force 国家机器 and able to punish.
- 2. To achieve the transfer of rights, the multitude多数人 so united in one person, is called a Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas. 城邦人民意愿的结合体 This is the generation of that great Leviathan.
- 3. So to escape anarchy, 无政府状态 men enter into 签署a social contract 社会契约, by which they submit to the Soverign政府 In return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security. *获得和平与安全的保障
- 4. In Hobbes’s theory the powers of the sovereign must be absolute专制的, and it is only be the centralization of authority 中央集权in one person that the evil can be avoided.
- 5. As to the form 组合形式 of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.
- ↘ absolute monarchy 君主制
- Hobbes believed that government was not created by God, but by men themselves.
- What is the Social Contract, according to Locke?
- 1. Locke believed that society is out of necessity , convenience and man’s own interest , and therefore, society is natural to man.相辅相成的
- 2. He argued that the institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government. ↘ democracy
- 3. Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail. 民主集中制
- 4. Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.
- In a word, if he violates the social contract, the government is effectively dissolved. When government is dissolved in any form of these ways, rebellion is justified.
- This idea was welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution. //
- * What are the major differences between Locke and Hobbes in terms of theory of social contract?
- ↘:
- Introduction:
- Although both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, they differed fundamentally.
- 1. First, Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason
- 2.Secondly, Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man , the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. 社会这一整体 According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If he fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to overthrow him. //
- The Social Contract was Rousseau’s most important work. It proposed a society able to cultivate the individual’s moral stature without injuring his freedom. Rousseau believed that a social contract was established when each individual gave his rights to a general will- as an equal participant in the political life. Then he was as free after this contract as he had been in the state of nature. He sacrificed his natural freedom for a civil freedom. The book ended with a claim for social democracy.
- 4． What are the chief differences between romanticism and realism?
- Romanticism emphasized individual values and aspiration above those of society. As a reaction to the Industrial revolution, it looked to the Middle Ages and to direct contact with nature for inspiration. It gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th-century Europe. Works written by Romanticists diversified in character and daring in spirit, all depicted man’s eager search for individual freedom, pure sentiments and ideal beauty. And their democratic attitude tended to make them value the individual very highly and to regard characterization as the center of the novel.
- The Realist movement centered in the novel and lay emphasis on fidelity to actual experience. The realists wanted a truthful representative in their works of contemporary life and manners. They thought of their method as observational and objective. In art and literature Realism came as a protest against the falseness and sentimentality which realists thought they saw in romantic fiction. If romanticism allows full play to the imagination and stresses love of beauty and interest in the past, the central issues of life for realists tend to be ethical, or issues of conduct. Realism means more than a literary method; it defines a particular kind of subject matter-- the surface details, the common-place actions and the tragedies of the ordinary people constitute the chief matter of the realist movement. Its language was usually clear, simple and direct, at the same time the tone was often comic, frequently satiric.
- 5．Effects of Darwinism:
- i) On Biology: immeasurable: the immediate effect of the publication of On the Origin of Species was to stimulate research in morphology, embryology and paleontology to find evidence to support or refute Darwin’s views. Such distinguished scientists as Charles Lyell, Thomas Huxley accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution on its publication.
- ii) On Theology: Darwin’s theory met with strong opposition as it completely contradicted the Scripture, did away with divine guidance, and substituted an automatic natural mechanism for the Creator’s designed creation. Big Debate between Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, and Thomas Huxley at the British association for the Advancement of Science.
- iii) On Social Science: Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) replaced natural selection with ‘survival of the fittest’ and developed what is known as social Darwinism which is the idea that was employed by the Nazi party in the 30’s and 40’s. It was used to justify force in eliminating other races cf. holocaust.
- iv) On Belief: with the last big problem (where man comes from) explained many people abandoned their religious beliefs and became agnostic or even atheist
- 6．Some important Freudian conceptions
- a. The unconscious
- b. Id, Ego, Superego
- Freud divided human personality into three functional parts- Id, Ego, Superego. In the Freudian system, the Id is the container of the instinctual urges. It is the unconscious part of the mind, which seeks immediate satisfaction of desires. It is concerned with what a person wants to do.
- Ego is the rational, thoughtful, realistic personality process. It is characterized by a desire for independence, autonomy and self-direction. It is concerned with what a person can do.
- Superego is the idealized image that a person builds of himself in response to authority and social pressures.
- The Id and the Superego often come into conflict with each other. It is the task of the Ego, according to Freud, to try to find a realistic way to resolve the conflict-by satisfying the demands of Id without offending the Superego.
- c. Oedipus Complex
- A Freudian term originating from a Greek tragedy, in which King Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.
[ 本帖最后由 yl120872063b 于 2010-1-23 15:35 编辑 ] |
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